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What is Time to Live (TTL)?

  • By Gcore
  • 11 min read
What is Time to Live (TTL)?

Time to live (TTL) is a value that signifies how long a packet of data can exist in a network before it is discarded. Understanding the Time to Live (TTL) process is necessary since it offers several benefits in computer networking and internet protocols. It is also an important element of caching which is vital for improving content delivery.

Without TTL, all kinds of problems could arise for users. With no TTL limit or an excessively high TTL value set for a packet, packets could circulate endlessly without expiring. As a result, regular users may experience sluggish network speeds, data transfer delays, and disruptions in service availability.

Having said that, TTL is deployed in various use cases, including:

  • IP packets: TTL comes into play with IP packets to avoid endless looping within the network. In this context, TTL helps to prevent network congestion and ensures efficient packet delivery.
  • DNS queries: Here, TTL determines how long the results of a query are stored in the cache. Specifically, TTL specifies the duration for which a DNS cache server can serve a DNS record before obtaining a fresh copy from the nameserver. By doing so, subsequent requests for the same domain can be swiftly resolved from the cache, avoiding the need for a complete DNS lookup process.
  • Content delivery networks (CDNs): In the case of CDNs, TTL governs how long content remains cached on edge servers. If the content is requested within the TTL period, it is served directly from the cache, providing faster delivery. Once the TTL expires, the CDN retrieves a fresh copy from the origin server, ensuring that users receive the most recent content while optimizing network efficiency.

In this article, we will explore how TTL works in different use cases, best practices for TTL, and TTL’s pros and cons. By the end of this read, you will be equipped with valuable knowledge to apply to your website, regardless of your industry or specific use case.

How Does TTL Work?

Let’s take a look at the mechanics of TTL across a variety of practical applications. TTL effectively maintains network efficiency and functionality in different scenarios, but the precise inner working differs slightly for its various applications.

Key Elements in TTL

Before diving into the mechanics of TTL, we first need to understand some of its key elements and terminology. Here are the key elements involved in how TTL works:

  1. IP packet. In networking,an IP packet is a unit of data that is sent over an IP network. The TTL field is an 8-bit field in the IP header (e.g., TTL: 64) that specifies the number of hops that an IP packet can travel before it is being discarded. The TTL is used to prevent IP packets from looping indefinitely in the network.
  2. Router. A router serves as a networking device responsible for transferring packets from one network to another. Routers rely on the TTL to determine the appropriate routing path for packets.
  3. TTL value. The source device sets an initial TTL value when creating a packet. This value determines the number of hops that the packet can traverse. Normally, TTL is measured in seconds. Here are some examples:
    1. IP. The default TTL value for IP packets is 64 seconds. As an 8-bit field, the TTL value can range from 0 to 255.
    2. DNS. For DNS records its TTL value is 3600 seconds (one hour.)
    3. CDN. The TTL value can vary depending on the type of content and the CDN provider. It can range as low as 30 seconds to 86,400 seconds (24 hours.) However, a typical TTL value for CDN cache is 300 seconds (five minutes.)
  4. Hop count. Each time the packet passes through a router, the TTL value is reduced by one. This process is known as hop count. The hop count represents the number of routers the packet has encountered so far. This part of the process is crucial because it stops packets circulating indefinitely within a network.
  5. Network. A network is a collection of devices that are connected together so that they can communicate with each other.

Now that we understand the components in TTL, let’s take a look at an example of TTL in action.

How TTL Works in Computer Networks/IP

In the example below, the TTL mechanism can be visualized as the packet travels through three routers. At each step, the TTL value decreases by one until either the destination device is reached or the TTL reaches zero. With a TTL value of 255, there is a substantial allowance of hops available for the packet to successfully reach its intended destination within the network.

Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of the process:

  1. The source device generates a packet with a TTL value of 255.
  2. The packet is sent from the source device (Host A) towards the destination device (Host B.)
  3. Router 1 receives the packet and decrements the TTL value to 254.
  4. Router 2 further receives the packet, decrements the TTL value to 253.
  5. The packet continues its journey to Router 3, which decreases the TTL value to 252.
  6. Finally, the packet reaches the destination device, which consumes the packet.

Now that we know how TTL works in computer networks, let’s see how it’s used in DNS.

How Time to Live Works in DNS

In DNS, the TTL value controls how long DNS resolvers and caching servers can rely on the cached record before considering it expired and fetching a fresh copy. This helps with balancing DNS resolution efficiency, data accuracy, and the ability to adapt to changes in DNS records. Using TTL in DNS ensures that DNS records remain valid and up to date, while allowing for efficient caching.

  1. Client makes a DNS query for the domain “example.com”.
  2. The DNS record for the domain “example.com” is created with an IP address of 192.168.1.100 in the A record, and a TTL of 3600 seconds (one hour.)
  3. The DNS resolver cache retains the domain “example.com” along with its corresponding DNS record. Upon checking its cache, the DNS resolver successfully locates the “example.com” record.
  4. Since the TTL has not expired, the resolver returns the IP address 192.168.1.100 for the requested domain.
  5. If the TTL has expired, the resolver queries the authoritative DNS server for an updated record.

TTL in DNS benefits internet users by enhancing DNS resolution efficiency, enabling load distribution, providing flexibility in DNS configuration, facilitating adaptation to changes, and minimizing network traffic. These advantages contribute to a smoother and more reliable user experience when accessing online services and websites.

In the next section, we will delve into the functionality of TTL in content delivery networks (CDNs.)

How TTL Works in Content Delivery Networks (CDNs)

In content delivery networks (CDNs,) TTL (Time to live) plays a significant role in determining how cached content is managed and delivered to users. Here’s how TTL works in CDNs:

  1. User request. The user initiates a request for specific content.
  2. Cache check. The CDN’s edge server checks its cache for the requested content and validates the TTL.
  3. Cache hit or miss. If the content is available in the cache and the TTL has not expired, the edge server delivers it directly to the user—this is called a “cache hit.” If the content is not available or the TTL has expired, the edge server proceeds to fetch the content from the origin server. This is a “cache miss.”
  4. Content delivery. The edge server delivers the content to the user, either from the cache (cache hit) or after fetching it from the origin server (cache miss.)
  5. TTL management. As the TTL approaches expiration, the edge server may proactively refresh the content from the origin server to ensure its freshness and update its cache.

The normal TTL settings in an edge server can vary depending on the type of content being cached, the amount of traffic being served, and the desired performance and security levels. A typical TTL setting for static content such as images and CSS files is one hour, while a typical TTL setting for dynamic content such as web pages is five minutes.

In the upcoming section, we will explore the factors that can influence the TTL configuration and discuss the recommended best practices for setting TTL values.

Best Practices for Configuring Time to Live

A well thought out approach to TTL can enhance the delivery of fresh content, improve efficiency, and optimize the content of your website or application to ensure fast loading speeds in order to retain visitors and enhance your SEO rankings. In all cases, the basic calculation is how to balance performance with speed; low TTLs offer the freshest content, whereas high TTLs offer the fastest delivery as such, it’s vital to have a sound understanding of configuration best practices, which differ according to use case. Let’s take a look at strategic TTL configurations across computer networks, DNS, and CDN. It is important to note that these are general guidelines, and specific TTL settings should be tailored to the particular needs of the network or application.

Computer Networks

In computer networks, TTL values are typically configured within routers and can vary from a few seconds to a few minutes. The specific value is influenced by factors such as the network infrastructure, the time it takes for packets to traverse the network, and the desired trade-off between responsiveness and network efficiency.

As a general guideline, TTL values of one to ten seconds are commonly employed for routing packets within a local area network (LAN.) In the case of wide area networks (WANs,) TTL values of 30-60 seconds are more frequently utilized.

DNS

In DNS, the TTL value is linked to DNS records and governs the duration for which they can be cached by DNS resolvers. Standard TTL values for DNS records vary from a few minutes to several hours or even days.

Smaller TTL values are typically assigned to dynamic records that undergo frequent changes, whereas larger TTL values are appropriate for static records that experience infrequent modifications. While a TTL of one hour is commonly utilized for many websites, it can be adjusted to be substantially higher or lower based on the specific requirements of the website.

CDN

In a content delivery network (CDN,) TTL values are set for cached content stored in edge servers. The specific TTL values in a CDN can vary based on factors such as content volatility, content update frequency, network conditions, and caching efficiency goals. TTL values in CDNs can range from a few minutes to several hours, allowing a balance between content freshness and reducing the load on the origin server.

CDNs typically use a TTL of five to fifteen minutes for cached content. This allows the CDN to serve up the most up-to-date content to users, while also minimizing the number of requests that need to be made to the origin server.

Additional Tips for TTL Configuration

Here are some additional tips for TTL configuration that apply across all use cases:

  • Use a shorter TTL for records that are frequently changed. This ensures that users see the most current information.
  • Use a longer TTL for records that are rarely changed. Optimize effectiveness by employing a longer TTL for records that undergo infrequent changes, such as static web pages. This approach reduces the frequency of requests to the origin server, resulting in improved efficiency.
  • Use a different TTL for different types of content. You might use a shorter TTL for images and a longer TTL for web pages, for example, depending on your specific use case.

Factors that Can Affect the TTL Setting

A number of external factors can and should include your TTL configuration. These components, from the frequency of content updates to the stability of your network, can affect how your TTL performs. To gain the full benefits of TTL, it’s essential to understand and manage these influential factors.

Here are some of the factors that can affect the TTL setting:

Content Update Frequency

Set TTL values based on the frequency at which the content being served is updated. Shorter TTL values should be used for frequently changing content, ensuring that users receive the latest information without unnecessary delays.

For infrequently updated content, a high TTL may be appropriate. Setting a high TTL improves performance by reducing server requests and enhances security by minimizing the risk of attacks on outdated content. Choose a TTL value that balances efficiency and security for optimal results.

Network Performance

Balance TTL values with network conditions to optimize performance. Consider factors like network stability, latency, and reliability when setting TTL values. Shorter TTL values may be appropriate in unstable networks to quickly adapt to changes, while longer TTL values can be used in more stable environments.

Testing and Monitoring Results

Periodically assess and monitor the effect of TTL values on the overall execution of the system. Analyze caching behavior, user experience, and server load to identify potential areas for enhancement.

Based on the observed outcomes, refine the TTL values to strike the desired equilibrium between content freshness and efficiency. Regular testing and monitoring your TTL values facilitates the optimization of TTL settings.

Use Cases, Benefits, and Disadvantages of TTL

TTL presents a wide range of use cases and benefits in the fields of networking, DNS, and CDNs. In the following section, we will impartially examine the advantages of TTL in different industries and real-life scenarios.

What are the Pros and Cons of TTL?

TTL mechanism offers a variety of benefits as well as some potential drawbacks. In this section, we will delve into the advantages and disadvantages of TTL. A comprehensive understanding of the pros and cons allows you to make informed decisions when implementing TTL.

Benefits of TTL

TTL offers numerous advantages, including:

  1. Flexible content management. TTL provides flexibility in managing content by allowing organizations to control the duration for which cached content remains valid. By adjusting TTL values, organizations can ensure that dynamic content is updated more frequently while static content remains cached for longer periods, balancing content freshness and server load.
  2. Faster content delivery. In content delivery networks (CDNs,) TTL plays a crucial role in delivering cached content to end-users. By setting optimal TTL values, CDNs can ensure that users receive content from nearby edge servers, reducing latency and improving content delivery speed.
  3. Enhanced security. TTL contributes to improved security by expiring outdated data and cached content. By setting shorter TTL values for sensitive information, organizations can minimize the risk of unauthorized access or data breaches, enhancing data security and integrity.
  4. Enhanced network efficiency. TTL plays a role in enhancing security by automatically expiring outdated data and cached content. By assigning shorter TTL values to sensitive information, organizations can effectively mitigate the risk of unauthorized access and data breaches, thereby bolstering data security and maintaining data integrity.
  5. Efficient resource management. By controlling the lifespan of data packets and cached content, TTL helps to optimize resource utilization. It allows organizations to manage network resources effectively, including routers, DNS servers, and CDN edge servers. As a result, unnecessary loads are reduced and overall resource efficiency is improved.

Drawbacks of TTL

TTL does have some potential disadvantages. Most of these can be mitigated by following the best practices outlined above. It is, however, important to be aware of these drawbacks.

  1. Stale content. When the TTL is set too low, there is a risk of users encountering stale content. This occurs when the content is cached in routers or caches, but the content has been updated on the origin server. As a result, users may not see the most recent version of the content, leading to potential inconsistencies or outdated information being displayed.
  2. Increased latency. If the TTL is too long, users may experience increased latency. This is because the router may have to forward the packet to multiple routers before it reaches its destination.
  3. Security risks. If the TTL is not set correctly, it can create security risks. A TTL that is too long can result in compromised data being stored in the cache, increasing vulnerability to cyberattacks. Conversely, a too-short TTL could intensify network traffic, opening up the problematic potential for DoS attacks.

Even though TTL serves as a valuable tool, it is essential to be aware of the drawbacks associated with it, and to ensure proper configuration in order to mitigate any potential issues.

What Are Some Use Cases and Examples of TTL?

Let’s explore some practical examples of TTL in action. The chart below shows use cases, industries, and real-life applications of TTL.

Use CaseIndustriesApplication
CachingWeb servicesImprove the performance of their websites by caching static content closer to the user. This can reduce the number of requests that need to be made to the origin server, which can improve performance.
Load balancingE-commerce, online gamingDistributing incoming network traffic across multiple servers. For instance, CDN can use TTL to reduce load on the origin server. This can reduce the number of requests that need to be made to the origin server, which can reduce the load on the server.
Reducing latencyVideo streaming, online gamingMinimizing delays and improving real-time interactions. For example, reducing delays in real-time online gaming.
FailoverFinancial institutions, cloud servicesEnsuring seamless switch to backup systems in case of failures. For example, reducing downtime by redirecting requests to backup servers.
DNS resolutionInternet service providers (ISPs,) website hostingTranslating domain names into IP addresses, and improving security by preventing outdated records from being used. This can help to protect users from attacks that exploit outdated records.

Please note that these examples only scratch the surface of the many different fields and sectors to which TTL can be applied.

Using Gcore DNS Hosting to Configure TTL

Here at Gcore, our high-speed and reliable DNS hosting service can significantly enhance the performance and availability of your online business. With an average latency of 20 ms worldwide and just 12 ms in Europe, we ensure fast and responsive DNS resolution for your website or application.

Our control panel offers clients the ability to update their DNS records and set their desired TTL values. We offer guidance on managing DNS records at both the non-advanced and advanced modes, ensuring that users of all levels of expertise can easily configure their DNS settings.

Gcore’s DNS features include:

To learn more about our DNS features and pricing, visit Gcore DNS hosting.

Conclusion

Time to live (TTL) is a significant feature in networking, DNS, and content delivery. Its primary role is to regulate the lifespan of data packets and cached content, ensuring efficient routing and content delivery while maintaining network performance and security. TTL impacts various industries by enhancing user experiences, improving website performance, and reducing the load on origin servers.

Whether in DNS, CDNs, or general networking, TTL works by setting expiration times for data, allowing for timely updates and efficient resource utilization. Understanding and effectively configuring TTL can significantly benefit organizations and individuals in achieving optimal network operation and content delivery across the internet.

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Conversely, in a phantom domain attack, attackers establish unresponsive domain servers that flood the resolver with requests, impairing performance and leading to service disruption.Botnet-based CPE attack: By compromising Customer Premise Equipment (CPE) devices like modems and routers, attackers transform them into a botnet and unleash random subdomain attacks against specific sites or domains, causing disturbances and obstructing normal service operations.Benefits of Implementing Robust DNS SecurityDNS protection offers numerous security and performance benefits for both commercial and home networks. Implementing DNS protection strengthens security, enhances network performance, reduces the risk of malware infections, and protects against phishing attempts. It provides a holistic approach to network protection, benefiting both organizations and individuals by maintaining a secure online environment, which is extremely important, especially considering hybrid and remote work models.Here are some less obvious advantages of implementing a secure DNS solution:Content filtering: Implementing secure DNS allows for content filtering without requiring additional software installations. It effectively blocks access to adult sites and unwanted content, reducing the risk of users inadvertently visiting malicious websites and consequently falling victim to cyberattacks.Advertisement blocking: Ad blocking is a subset of content filtering. Secure DNS solutions can effectively block advertisements that collect sensitive information or contain concealed malicious applications. By preventing the display of ads, system performance is enhanced, leading to improved employee efficiency and productivity.Botnet protection: With the increasing prevalence of IoT devices, botnets have emerged as a significant threat. DNS protection takes proactive measures to block communication with known botnet servers, thereby safeguarding devices from being compromised and enlisted in malicious activities.Malware and phishing blocking: Secure DNS solutions have the capability to block access to websites hosting potentially harmful or malicious content, including viruses and scams. Combining DNS security with proper training can significantly diminish the likelihood of individuals falling for phishing attempts.Enhanced speed and reliability: Secure DNS servers generally provide faster lookup times than DNS servers provided by internet service providers (ISPs.) This increased speed enhances overall efficiency and productivity. Secure DNS servers also offer heightened reliability, ensuring a smoother and more consistent internet connection experience.Enhanced lookup speed: Secure DNS servers generally offer quicker lookup times than ISP DNS servers. This is because secure DNS servers are equipped with advanced protection mechanisms and filters that may be lacking in ISP servers. As a result, users experience improved reliability and faster connection speeds, promoting greater productivity.Now we understand the benefits of DNS security, let’s look at how it works in practice.How Does DNS Security Work?DNS security plays a critical role in safeguarding network operations by protecting against potential threats and ensuring the integrity of data exchanges. To understand the intricacies of DNS security and its underlying mechanisms, let’s break down how it works, step-by-step.Step #1: Local Cache CheckWhen a user enters a domain name (e.g., www.petfood.com) into a web browser, the computer initially checks its local DNS cache for the associated IP address. If cached, the domain is served immediately. If the information is not found, the computer proceeds to perform a DNS query.During the DNS lookup process, there are potential security vulnerabilities that can be exploited. One such vulnerability is DNS cache poisoning, where attackers manipulate or inject false DNS information into the cache, leading users to malicious websites. To mitigate this risk, security measures like DNSSEC (Domain Name System Security Extensions) can be implemented, ensuring data integrity and authenticity.Step #2: Recursive DNS Server QueryIn the absence of the IP address in the local cache, the computer sends a query to recursive DNS servers (resolvers). These DNS servers are designed to receive DNS queries from client machines through applications such as web browsers.Recursive DNS servers can be susceptible to various security threats, including distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks that aim to overwhelm the servers and disrupt DNS services. To mitigate these risks, security measures like rate limiting and traffic filtering can be implemented on the recursive DNS servers. Additionally, implementing secure communication protocols such as DNS over HTTPS (DoH) or DNS over TLS (DoT) helps protect the confidentiality and integrity of DNS queries and responses. (More on these measures later.)Step #3: Recursive Resolver and Authoritative Server QueryWhen the IP address is not available in the recursive DNS server’s cache, the DNS server assumes the role of a recursive resolver. The resolver then searches for the authoritative DNS servers responsible for the specific domain. These authoritative servers store the DNS records associated with the domain.During the discovery of authoritative DNS servers, attackers can attempt to hijack or spoof the responses from the recursive resolver, leading users to be redirected to malicious servers. To address this, measures such as DNSSEC, DNS source port randomization, and response validation can be implemented. These techniques help verify the authenticity of DNS responses and prevent DNS cache poisoning or redirection attacks.Step #4: Retrieval of DNS RecordsThe recursive resolver sends queries to the authoritative DNS servers chain to obtain an answer (e.g., the IP address for the requested domain.) An answer is expected to be obtained from an authoritative server for this domain. And those servers are determined by recursive queries ( ask root NSs for .com NS servers, ask .com NSs for example.com NS servers, ask example.com NSs for www.example.com A record.) The authoritative servers respond with the IP address. Once the recursive resolver gets the IP address from the authoritative servers, it caches this address for future queries.Security vulnerabilities that can arise during the retrieval of DNS records include Man-in-the-Middle attacks and DNS spoofing. To mitigate these risks, DNSSEC plays a crucial role by ensuring the authenticity and integrity of DNS responses. By validating the digital signatures attached to DNS records, a recursor can trust that the IP address received is legitimate and hasn’t been tampered with.Step #5: DNS Configuration on the User’s ComputerThe recursive DNS server provides the IP address to the user’s computer. The computer creates a local cache with the DNS record and retrieves the IP address. The web browser connects to the website using the obtained IP address from the DNS record.Potential security vulnerabilities of an end user’s computer can include the manipulation of the local DNS cache or the interception of DNS responses. To enhance security, regular updates and patches should be applied to the computer’s operating system and DNS client software. Implementing secure DNS resolvers and using secure communication protocols like DoH or DoT on the user’s computer can also help protect against DNS-related security threats.DNS Security Best PracticesNow we understand how DNS security works and recognize its importance, the need for businesses to prioritize and maintain smooth DNS operations is apparent. The rest of this article focuses on best practices. First, let’s explore a broad range of best practices, before diving into a few in more depth.Use DNS security extension/DNSSEC. Adopting a DNS security extension or DNSSEC adds an extra layer of security through the cryptographic authentication of DNS data. DNSSEC enhances trustworthiness by verifying the authenticity of retrieved DNS responses. Domain owners generate cryptographic keys and upload them to their domain registrar, reinforcing the integrity of DNS records. We’ll cover DNSSEC in depth in the next section.Get a DNS firewall. Employing a DNS firewall is another critical measure. Organizations can detect and block potential DNS attacks by directing visitor requests to an intermediary for analysis before reaching the authoritative nameserver. This ensures continuous operations even during attack scenarios.Conduct monitoring. Vigilant monitoring of DNS requests and subsequent IP connections significantly strengthens network security. Look out for signs of malicious behavior, such as unusual domain activity or attempts to spoof the DNS server. Identifying and promptly responding to unusual DNS activity allows businesses to proactively address malicious activities, compromised systems, and potential cybersecurity threats.Filter reported addresses. Organizations can configure their DNS servers to block requests associated with reported malicious websites and their associated IP addresses. Utilizing publicly available lists of such addresses enhances security protocols and helps mitigate risks.Configure in a segregated environment. Configure DNS servers in a segregated environment, limiting connections between servers and minimizing the impact of a compromised server.Update regularly. Keep DNS servers up-to-date with scheduled updates to introduce new security protocols and fix vulnerabilities promptly.Offer training. Provide comprehensive training to DNS server users, covering SSL/TLS certificate verification, cautious behavior with unrecognized links, and prompt security checks.Enable DNS logging. Recording and monitoring all DNS transactions allows network administrators to identify potential threats before they can compromise computer systems.Let’s look at the first of these best practices in more depth.What Is DNSSEC? What Does DNSSEC Do?DNSSEC is a solution that significantly enhances DNS security. DNSSEC adds an extra layer of security by protecting against attacks like DNS cache poisoning, where attackers inject falsified data into DNS caches so that the DNS server stores and provides incorrect website addresses. DNSSEC checks the digital signatures and ensures that only DNS responses that have been signed and validated are accepted. This lowers the chances of you being directed to a malicious website and enhances the overall security of your internet browsing experience.By implementing DNSSEC, organizations can also prevent DNS data from being compromised due to the inherent risk of a broken chain of trust introduced by untrusted or non-compliant resolvers. This is one of the major flaws associated with DNS.DNSSEC incorporates cryptographic mechanisms to protect the integrity and authenticity of DNS data. Two key features of DNSSEC are the use of digital signatures and validation chains. Let’s explore how each works.Digital SignaturesImagine the DNS server as a trusted person, who signs their messages (in this case, the DNS data) with a special private key. When your computer receives this signed message, it can verify the authenticity of the message using a corresponding public key. In essence, the private key generates a digital signature, which is attached to the DNS data. This digital signature confirms that the data is genuinely from the DNS server and that it hasn’t been altered while being sent to your resolver.Validation ChainsDNSSEC relies on a hierarchical chain of trust, where each level of the DNS hierarchy signs the data of its subdomains, creating a validation chain. Let’s break this down. The DNS has a hierarchical structure, much like a family tree but in reverse. At the top, we have the root domain, below that are top-level domains (like .com, .org), and under them are the individual domains (like “petfood” in “petfood.com.”) In DNSSEC, each level in this hierarchy signs the information of its subdomains, which creates a chain of trust or a validation chain.During DNSSEC validation, the resolver verifies the digital signatures starting from the root servers, then top-level domain (TLD) and works its way down the chain, checking the digital signatures at each level until it gets to the specific domain you requested. This validation process guarantees the integrity of the DNS data and provides assurance that the information received is authentic.Now, let’s look at another best practice for DNS security: DNS logging.What Is DNS Logging? How Can It Help Promote DNS Security?DNS logging involves the systematic collection of comprehensive data related to DNS traffic by recording and monitoring all DNS transactions handled by the DNS server. This process allows network administrators to observe and analyze the exchanged data during DNS resolution processes, aiding in the identification of potential threats before they can compromise computer systems. DNS logging plays a crucial role in identifying common types of DNS attacks, including DNS hijacking, DNS tunneling, and DoS attacks.Once DNS logging is enabled, the DNS server starts generating log entries for each DNS transaction. These logs provide a chronological record of DNS activities, allowing administrators to review and analyze them for various purposes, such as troubleshooting DNS errors or identifying potential security threats.On a micro level, by monitoring the data exchanged during DNS resolution, DNS logging enables the detection of malicious URLs, emails from phishing domains, command-and-control (C2) domains, or Typosquatting domains. DNS logs usually contain highly detailed information such as queried domain names, IP addresses, requested record types, and request flags, empowering administrators to verify known malware domains, identify compromised devices, and uncover signs of malicious activity.By examining the DNS logs, administrators can gain insights into the network’s DNS traffic patterns, detect anomalies, and identify suspicious or malicious activities. They can also use the logged data to correlate events, track the source of attacks, and investigate security incidents. Different types of DNS logging, such as audit logging, analytical logging, and debug logging, offer varying levels of performance and impact on the DNS server.We’ve now examined standard best practices in DNS security. However, two new practices are revolutionizing DNS security: DoH and DoT. Let’s look at them more closely.What Are DoH and DoT? How Are They Revolutionizing DNS Security?Emerging technologies are reshaping DNS security, paving the way for improved online privacy and data protection. Among these advancements are DNS over HTTPS (DoH) and DNS over TLS (DoT), two protocols designed to enhance security by encrypting DNS traffic and ensuring the authenticity of DNS requests and responses.DoHDoH, or DNS over HTTPS, operates by encrypting DNS queries within an HTTPS session, providing an additional layer of security by concealing DNS queries from unauthorized access. This encryption occurs through HTTPS sessions, minimizing the amount of information exchanged between users and servers. Major web browsers like Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, and Mozilla Firefox have adopted DoH as part of their commitment to enhancing data privacy and security.DoTDoT, or DNS over TLS, encrypts DNS queries using the TLS security protocol. By applying TLS encryption on top of the user datagram protocol (UDP) used for DNS queries, DoT protects against tampering and on-path attacks, bolstering overall DNS security.Comparing DoH and DoTDoT and DoH each offer unique benefits. DoT safeguards DNS communication via encryption and allows network administrators control over DNS traffic, aiding in security policy enforcement and threat identification. Conversely, by camouflaging DNS traffic within HTTPS, DoH complicates third-party monitoring or manipulation of DNS queries, thus bolstering user privacy, especially in public Wi-Fi use or in places with internet censorship.Choosing between DoT and DoH hinges on individual or organizational needs: DoT suits those prioritizing security control and policy enforcement, while DoH caters to those valuing privacy protection against unauthorized access or manipulation. The implementation of these technologies depends on factors such as DNS resolver support, client compatibility, and network infrastructure. A balanced approach to security and privacy may involve using both DoT and DoH simultaneously.ConclusionThe vast amount of information available on the internet has unfortunately made organizations more vulnerable to DNS attacks. It is essential to take decisive steps to enforce and maintain DNS protection measures so that your organization is safe from DNS-related cybercrime.By staying vigilant and taking advantage of reliable DNS protection solutions like Gcore’s DDoS protection offering and enterprise-grade hosting services, you can enhance your overall cybersecurity posture and protect your digital assets.Get protected today with our free DDoS Protection trial.

Flexible DDoS mitigation with BGP Flowspec cover image

Flexible DDoS mitigation with BGP Flowspec

For customers who understand their own network traffic patterns, rigid DDoS protection can be more of a limitation than a safeguard. That’s why Gcore supports BGP Flowspec: a flexible, standards-based method for defining granular filters that block or rate-limit malicious traffic in real time…before it reaches your infrastructure.In this article, we’ll walk through:What Flowspec is and how it worksThe specific filters and actions Gcore supportsCommon use cases, with example rule definitionsHow to activate and monitor Flowspec in your environmentWhat is the BGP Flowspec?BGP Flowspec (RFC 8955) extends Border Gateway Protocol to distribute traffic filtering rules alongside routing updates. Instead of static ACLs or reactive blackholing, Flowspec enables near-instantaneous propagation of mitigation rules across networks.BGP tells routers how to reach IP prefixes across the internet. With Flowspec, those same BGP announcements can now carry rules, not just routes. Each rule describes a pattern of traffic (e.g., TCP SYN packets >1000 bytes from a specific subnet) and what action to take (drop, rate-limit, mark, or redirect).What are the benefits of the BGP Flowspec?Most traditional DDoS protection services react to threats after they start, whether by blackholing traffic to a target IP, redirecting flows to a scrubbing center, or applying rigid, static filters. These approaches can block legitimate traffic, introduce latency, or be too slow to respond to fast-evolving attacks.Flowspec offers a more flexible alternative.Proactive mitigation: Instead of waiting for attacks, you can define known-bad traffic patterns ahead of time and block them instantly. Flowspec lets experienced operators prevent incidents before they start.Granular filtering: You’re not limited to blocking by IP or port. With Flowspec, you can match on packet size, TCP flags, ICMP codes, and more, enabling fine-tuned control that traditional ACLs or RTBH don’t support.Edge offloading: Filtering happens directly on Gcore’s routers, offloading your infrastructure and avoiding scrubbing latency.Real-time updates: Changes to rules are distributed across the network via BGP and take effect immediately, faster than manual intervention or standard blackholing.You still have the option to block traffic during an active attack, but with Flowspec, you gain the flexibility to protect services with minimal disruption and greater precision than conventional tools allow.Which parts of the Flowspec does Gcore implement?Gcore supports twelve filter types and four actions of the Flowspec.Supported filter typesGcore supports all 12 standard Flowspec match components.Filter FieldDescriptionDestination prefixTarget subnet (usually your service or app)Source prefixSource of traffic (e.g., attacker IP range)IP protocolTCP, UDP, ICMP, etc.Port / Source portMatch specific client or server portsDestination portMatch destination-side service portsICMP type/codeFilter echo requests, errors, etc.TCP flagsFilter packets by SYN, ACK, RST, FIN, combinationsPacket lengthFilter based on payload sizeDSCPQuality of service code pointFragmentMatch on packet fragmentation characteristicsSupported actionsGcore DDoS Protection supports the following Flowspec actions, which can be triggered when traffic matches a specific filter:ActionDescriptionTraffic-rate (0x8006)Throttle/rate limit traffic by byte-per-second rateredirectRedirect traffic to alternate location (e.g., scrubbing)traffic-markingApply DSCP marks for downstream classificationno-action (drop)Drop packets (rate-limit 0)Rule orderingRFC 5575 defines the implicit order of Flowspec rules. The crucial point is that more specific announcements take preference, not the order in which the rules are propagated.Gcore also respects Flowspec rule ordering per RFC 5575. More specific filters override broader ones. Future support for Flowspec v2 (with explicit ordering) is under consideration, pending vendor adoption.Blackholing and extended blackholing (eBH)Remote-triggered blackhole (RTBH) is a standardized protection method that the client manages via BGP by analyzing traffic, identifying the direction of the attack (i.e., the destination IP address). This method protects against volumetric attacks.Customers using Gcore IP Transit can trigger immediate blackholing for attacked prefixes via BGP, using the well-known blackhole community tag 65000:666. All traffic to that destination IP is dropped at Gcore’s edge.The list of supported BGP communities is available here.BGP extended blackholeExtended blackhole (eBH) allows for more granular blackholing that does not affect legitimate traffic. For customers unable to implement Flowspec directly, Gcore supports eBH. You announce target prefixes with pre-agreed BGP communities, and Gcore translates them into Flowspec mitigations.To configure this option, contact our NOC at noc@gcore.lu.Monitoring and limitationsGcore can support several logging transports, including mail and Slack.If the number of Flowspec prefixes exceeds the configured limit, Gcore DDoS Protection stops accepting new announcements, but BGP sessions and existing prefixes will stay active. Gcore will receive a notification that you reached the limit.How to activateActivation takes just two steps:Define rules on your edge router using Flowspec NLRI formatAnnounce rules via BGP to Gcore’s intermediate control planeThen, Gcore validates and propagates the filters to border routers. Filters are installed on edge devices and take effect immediately.If attack patterns are unknown, you’ll first need to detect anomalies using your existing monitoring stack, then define the appropriate Flowspec rules.Need help activating Flowspec? Get in touch via our 24/7 support channels and our experts will be glad to assist.Set up GRE and benefit from Flowspec today

Tuning Gcore CDN rules for dynamic application data caching

Caching services like content delivery networks (CDNs) can be a solid addition to your web stack. They lower response latency and improve user experience while also helping protect your origin servers through security features like access control lists (ACLs) and traffic filtering. However, if you’re running a highly dynamic web service, a misconfigured CDN might lead to the delivery of stale or, in the worst case, wrong data.If you’re hosting a dynamic web service and want to speed it up, this guide is for you. It explains the common issues dynamic services have with CDNs and how to solve them with Gcore CDN.How does dynamic data differ from static data?There are two main differences between static and dynamic data:Change frequency: Dynamic data changes more often than static data. Some websites stay the same for weeks or months; others change multiple times daily.Personalized responses: Static systems deliver the same response for a given URL path. Dynamic systems, by contrast, can generate different responses for each user, based on parameters like authentication, location, session data, or user preferences.Now, you might ask: Aren’t static websites simply HTML pages while dynamic ones are generated on-the-fly by application servers?It depends.A website consisting only of HTML pages might still be dynamic if the pages are changed frequently, and an application server that generates HTML responses can serve the same HTML forever and always provide everyone with the same content for a URL. The CDN network doesn’t know how you create the HTML. It only sees the finished product and decides how long it should cache it. You need to decide on a case-by-case basis.How do cache rules affect dynamic data?When using a CDN, you have to define rules that govern the caching of your data. If you consider this data dynamic, either because it changes frequently or because you deliver user-specific responses, those rules can drastically impact the user experience, ranging from the delivery of stale data to completely wrong data.Cache expirationFirst, consider cache expiration time. With Gcore CDN, you have two options:Let your origin server control it. This is ideal for dynamic systems using application servers because it gives you precise control without needing to adjust Gcore settings.Let Gcore CDN control it. This works well for static HTTP servers delivering HTML pages that change often. If you can’t modify the server’s cache configuration, using Gcore’s settings is easier.No matter which method you choose, understand what your users consider “stale” and set the expiration time accordingly.Query string handlingNext, decide how Gcore CDN should handle URL query parameters. Ignoring them can improve performance—but for dynamic systems that use query strings for server-side sorting, filtering, or pagination, this can break functionality.For example, a headless CMS might use: https://example.com/api/posts?sort=asc&start=99If the CDN ignores the query string, it will always deliver the cached response, even if new parameters are requested. So, make sure to disable the Ignore query string parameters setting when necessary.Cookie bypassingCookies are often used for session handling. While ignoring cookies can boost performance, doing so risks breaking applications that rely on them.For example: https://example.com/api/users/profileIf this endpoint relies on a session cookie, caching without considering the cookie will serve the same user profile to everyone. Be sure to disable “Ignore cookies” if your server uses them for authentication or personalization.Cache key customizationIf you need more detailed control over the caching, you can modify the cache key generation. This key defines the mapping of a request to a cache entry and allows you to manage the granularity of your caching.The Gcore Customer Portal offers basic customization functionality, and the support team can help with advanced rules. For example, adding the request method (e.g., GET, HEAD, POST, etc.) to your cache key ensures a single URL has a dedicated cache entry for each method instead of using one for all.GraphQL considerationsMost GraphQL implementations only use POST requests and include the GraphQL query in the request body. This means every GraphQL request will use the same URL and the same method, regardless of the query. Gcore CDN doesn’t check the request body when caching, so every query will result in the same cache key and override each other.To make sure the CDN doesn’t break your API, turn off caching for all your GraphQL endpoints.Path-based CDN rules for hybrid contentIf your application serves both static and dynamic content across different paths, Gcore CDN rules offer a powerful way to manage caching more granularly.Using the CDN rules engine, you can create specific rules for individual file paths or extensions. This allows you to apply dynamic-appropriate settings—like disabling caching or respecting cookies—only to dynamic endpoints (e.g., /api/**), while using more aggressive caching for static assets (e.g., /assets/**, /images/**, or /js/**).This path-level control delivers performance gains from CDN caching without compromising the correctness of dynamic content delivery.SummaryUsing a CDN is an easy way to improve your site’s performance, and even dynamic applications can benefit from CDN caching when configured correctly. Check that:Expiration times reflect real-world freshness needsQuery strings and cookies aren’t ignored if they affect the responseCache keys are customized where neededGraphQL endpoints are excluded from cachingCDN rules are used to apply different settings for dynamic and static pathsWith the right setup, you can safely speed up even the most complex applications.Explore our step-by-step guide to setting rules for particular files in Gcore CDN.Discover Gcore CDN

How AI is reshaping the future of interactive streaming

Interactive streaming is entering a new era. Artificial intelligence is changing how live content is created, delivered, and experienced. Advances in real-time avatars, voice synthesis, deepfake rendering, and ultra-low-latency delivery are giving rise to new formats and expectations.Viewers don’t want to be passive audiences anymore. They want to interact, influence, and participate. For platforms that want to lead, the stakes are growing: innovate now, or fall behind.At Gcore, we support this shift with global streaming infrastructure built to handle responsive, AI-driven content at scale. This article explores how real-time interactivity is evolving and how you can prepare for what’s next.A new era for live contentStreaming used to mean watching someone else perform. Today, it’s becoming a conversation between the creator and the viewer. AI tools are making live content more reactive and personalized. A cooking show host can take ingredient requests from the audience and generate live recipes. A language tutor can assess student pronunciation and adjust the lesson plan on the spot. These aren’t speculative use cases—they’re already being piloted.Traditional cameras and presenters are no longer required. Some creators now use entirely digital hosts, powered by motion capture and generative AI. They can stream with multiple personas, switch backgrounds on command, or pause for mid-session translations. This evolution is not about replacing humans but creating new ways to engage that scale across time zones, languages, and platforms.Creating virtual influencersVirtual influencers are digital characters designed to build audiences, promote products, and hold conversations with followers. Unlike human influencers, they don’t get tired, change jobs, or need extensive re-shoots when messaging changes. They’re fully programmable, and the most successful ones are backed by teams of writers, animators, and brand strategists.For example, a skincare company might launch a virtual influencer with a consistent tone, recognizable look, and 24/7 availability. This persona could host product tutorials in the morning, respond to DMs during the day, and livestream reactions to customer feedback at night—all in the local language of the audience.These characters are not limited to influencer marketing. A virtual celebrity might appear as a guest at a live product launch or provide commentary during a sports event. The point is consistency, scalability, and control. Gcore’s global delivery network ensures these digital personas perform without delay, wherever the audience is located.Real-time avatars and AI-generated personasReal-time avatars use motion capture and emotion detection to mimic human behavior with digital models. A fitness instructor can appear as a stylized avatar while tracking their own real movements. A virtual talk show host can gesture, smile, or pause in response to viewer comments. These avatars do more than just look the part—they respond dynamically.AI-generated personas build on this foundation with language generation and decision-making. For instance, an edtech company could deploy a digital tutor that asks learners comprehension questions and adapts its tone based on their engagement level. In entertainment, a music artist might perform live as a virtual character that reflects audience mood through color shifts, dance patterns, or facial expression.These experiences require ultra-low latency. If the avatar lags, the illusion collapses. Gcore’s infrastructure supports the real-time input-output loop needed to make digital characters feel present and responsive.Deepfake technology for creative storytellingDeepfakes are often associated with misinformation, but the same tools can be used to build engaging, high-integrity content. The technology enables face-swapping, voice cloning, and character animation, all of which are powerful in live formats.A museum might use deepfake avatars of historical figures for interactive educational sessions. Visitors could ask questions, and Abraham Lincoln or Golda Meir might respond with historically grounded answers in real time. A brand could create a fictional spokesperson who evolves over time, appearing in product demos, ads, and livestreams. Deepfake technology also allows multilingual content without re-recording—the speaker’s lip movements and tone are modified to match each language.These applications raise legitimate ethical questions. Gcore’s streaming infrastructure includes controls to ensure the source and integrity of AI-generated content are traceable and secure. We provide the technical foundation that enables deepfake use cases without compromising trust.Synthetic voices and personalized audioAudio is often overlooked in discussions about AI streaming, but it’s just as important as video. Synthetic voices today can express subtle emotions and match speaking styles. They can whisper, shout, pause for dramatic effect, and even mimic regional accents.Let’s consider a news platform that offers interactive daily briefings. Viewers choose their preferred language, delivery style (casual, serious, humorous), and even the voice profile. The AI generates a personalized broadcast on the fly. In gaming, synthetic characters can offer encouragement, warn about strategy mistakes, or narrate progress—all without human voice actors.Gcore’s streaming infrastructure ensures that synthetic voice outputs are tightly synchronized with video, so users don’t experience out-of-sync dialogue or lag during back-and-forth exchanges.Increasing interactivity through feedback and participationInteractivity in streaming now goes far beyond comments or emoji reactions. It includes live polls that influence story outcomes, branching narratives based on audience behavior, and user-generated content layered into the broadcast.For example, a live talent show might allow viewers to suggest challenges mid-broadcast. An online classroom could let students vote on the next topic. A product launch might include a real-time Q&A where the host pulls questions from chat and answers them in the moment.All of these use cases rely on real-time data processing, behavior tracking, and adaptive rendering. Gcore’s platform handles the underlying complexity so that creators can focus on building experiences, not infrastructure.Why low latency is criticalInteractive content only works if it feels immediate. A delay of even a second can break immersion, especially when users are trying to influence the outcome or receive a response. Low latency is essential for real-time gaming, sports, interviews, and educational formats.A live trivia game with hundreds of participants won’t retain users if there’s a lag between the question appearing and the timer starting. A remote surgery training session won’t work if the avatar’s responses trail behind the mentor’s instructions. In each of these cases, timing is everything.Gcore Video Streaming minimizes buffering, supports high-resolution streams, and synchronizes data flows to keep participants engaged. Our infrastructure is built to support high-throughput, globally distributed audiences with the responsiveness that interactive formats demand.Preparing for what’s nextAI-generated content is no longer a novelty. It’s becoming a standard feature of modern streaming strategies. Whether you’re building a platform that features virtual influencers, immersive avatars, or interactive educational streams, the foundation matters. That foundation is infrastructure.If you’re planning the next generation of live content, we’re ready to help you bring it to life. At Gcore, we provide the performance, scale, and security to launch these experiences with confidence. Our streaming solutions are designed to support real-time content generation, audience interaction, and global delivery without compromise.Want to see interactive streaming in action? Learn how fan.at used Gcore Video Streaming to deliver ultra-low-latency streams and boost fan engagement with real-time features.Read the case study

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